A CRITICAL PPRAISAL OF NIGERIA’S COUNTER-TERRORISM

A CRITICAL PPRAISAL OF NIGERIA’S COUNTER-TERRORISM

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A CRITICAL PPRAISAL OF NIGERIA’S COUNTER-TERRORISM

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

Although various definitions of terrorism exist, the common factor that drives them all is that terrorism is a premeditated, politically motivated action of violence carried out against non-combatant targets, by militant groups or clandestine agents (Mannik, 2007). Terrorism dates back to when humans first began using violence to achieve political ambitions. It evolved through decades to become modern-day terrorism (Zalman, 2018). While the early days of terrorist acts were seen as actions against a state, aimed at improving its system, modern-day terrorism is characterized by violent attacks against particular political orders. The intention is to create fear in a wider audience (in most cases, the civilian population) and to coerce political targets into certain behaviors or actions beneficial to the terrorist groups (Mannik, 2007).

In Nigeria, terrorism is defined as:

An act intended or regarded as having been intended to force a government or an international organization to carry out or abstain from carrying out a certain act such as researching or developing a biological or chemical weapon without lawful authority, dissemination of information (be it true or false) aimed at causing panic, evoke violence or intimidation against government, a person or group of persons (Goitom, 2011.p1).

Acts that may be justified as acts of terrorism following the Nigerian definition have been occurring since 1966. This includes the Nigerian civil war led by Odumegwu

Ojukwu, whose plan was to force the Nigerian government to secede a part of the country to a particular tribe. Other such acts include the military coups in Nigeria and lone ranger and militant group attacks motivated by various justifiable and unjustifiable factors.

In this study, however, I focused on the recent trend of terrorism by groups such as Boko Haram, Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta, and other recently formed terrorist groups in Nigeria that fit the definition of terrorism, both locally and internationally. It is my goal that this study may help in developing new strategies to combat terrorism and can be used by counterterrorism agencies globally.

In this first chapter, I reveal the background of the study, offer a summary of the relevant literature, and present a problem and purpose statement. This chapter also contains the research question, a theoretical framework for the study, the nature of the study, and details of likely contributions of the study to positive social change. I conclude the first chapter with a summary and transition into the next chapter.

Background of the Study

Terrorism in Nigeria has become famous between 2001 and 2019 with the emergence of Boko Haram and other terrorist groups from the oil rich Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Some of the Niger Delta militia groups include Niger Delta People’s

Volunteer Front, Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta and most recently, Niger Delta Avengers. The alleged motive for Niger Delta terrorists developed as a result of social benefit deprivation and government neglect. The nation’s economy depends mainly on oil, a natural resource rooted in the region. Militant groups gained strength through various tactics such as kidnapping expatriates and oil workers for ransom and attacks on oil facilities forcing the government to negotiate with them

(International Criminal Court, 2013).

Some of these negotiations involved cash for arms, which only strengthened the terrorists’ arsenal because their old arms were sold to the government and the profits were used to acquire more sophisticated weapons. Terrorists also negotiated for the allocation of huge contracts to leaders of these groups, government appointments to nominees of militant leaders, and the Niger Delta Amnesty program, which granted amnesty to all terrorists from that region and ensured that billions of dollars were allocated to them and their friends and families as monthly stipends and for training (UNOCH, 2004).

Believing that this strategy of negotiation was a solution to the problem, the Nigerian government succumbed and found itself constrained by demands and further threats from these groups. Mismanagement of the resources assigned for the project, lack of professional engagement, and corruption on the part of the handlers led to a reckless waste of over $40 billion on unprofitable training programs (Okoromadu, 2018). More than 80% of the terrorists were trained in vocations that had no financial viability and others were allocated monthly stipends for merely sitting at home (Wodu, 2014). This faulty strategy aimed at bringing an end to terrorism in the Niger Delta only encouraged terrorists from the region to threaten the government. Other militant groups in that region began to form by people who also wanted to enjoy these personal benefits from the government.

Boko Haram was in existence and had registered scanty and unnoticed attacks prior to the formation of the recent Niger Delta militant groups. When terrorists from the Niger Delta were captured by the Department of State Security and placed in the same cells with Boko Haram members, they gained access to knowledge of more sophisticated tactics from these other terrorists groups. The Department of State Security thought mixing terrorist groups together would break them because of their cultural and religious differences but the terrorists saw it as an opportunity to share ideas, experiences and tactics. As a result Boko Haram began to duplicate of the tactics of the Niger Delta terrorists. Explosives were introduced in the north along with kidnapping, both of which had not been part of Boko Haram’s previous tactics for negotiations with the Nigerian government.

Over the years, and especially between 2000 and 2016, Nigeria suffered major casualties from Boko Haram attacks. In this period, as many as 18,914 lives (both civilians and military) were lost, children were kidnapped and deprived of education and parental care, and communities have been destroyed, leaving the nation with colossal damage and economic loss (Global Terrorism Index 2017). The military tactics used to disengage terrorists are the same combat engagement strategies that infuriates terrorists and result in reprisal attacks, which have cost the nation billions of dollars (Global

Terrorism Index, 2016).

Data show that the impact of terrorism in Nigeria has reduced recently, likely as a result of factions competing with Boko Haram. This has been a strategy of terrorists in Nigeria: creating an impression they have been subdued by the military only to return stronger with new strategies. As noted by the current Nigerian president (Muhammadu Buhari), it is necessary that counterterrorist agencies must strengthen their strategies and develop new ones to beat the terrorists at their game (Punch News, 2017). To combat terrorism, the entire nation must work together as a team; all citizens, including the civilian community, must be involved in fighting terrorism, by disseminating reliable information leading to the capture of prominent terrorists and giving information that may thwart the successful operations of terrorists.

The Nigerian state has yet to achieve active civilian participation in counterterrorism, likely because all agents fighting against terrorism in Nigeria appear to be part of those terrorizing civilians. Agencies of anti-terrorism, including vigilante groups, assume that any civilian who may have useful information on terrorists may also be a terrorist, which can lead to dangerous consequences for the civilian. Nonetheless, understanding the tactics of the terrorists is a major tool toward defeating them. Nigerian counterterrorist’s lack this skill and need education and training in creative ways to tackle this problem through various results-oriented strategies, rather than mere combat engagement.

Problem Statement

The growing presence of terrorists in Nigeria has affected the educational development of youths in northern and southern Nigeria because they are either recruited and indoctrinated by Boko Haram and Niger Delta terrorist sects (Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta, the Avengers, and a host of others), or they are kidnapped and kept hostage for part of their lives (Lauderdale & Oliverio, 2018). Social and economic development has been hampered by this recurring episode; as a huge portion of the nation’s wealth is directed toward fighting terrorism rather than funding socioeconomic progression.

As a result, the rate of poverty has increased and most Nigerian youth have no option but to join terrorist groups as a means of livelihood to gain some form of power and benefits: meals, sex with female victims, and stipends. These benefits were far out of reach for them before involvement with the groups and motivate them to join. The negative impact of these terrorist groups in Nigeria has been globally noted and maintains steady growth; Nigeria ranks third highest in terms of worst impact of terrorism, behind only Iraq and Afghanistan (Global Terrorist Index, 2017).

Various agencies in Nigeria and its neighboring countries have been established to fight terrorism, but without success. This is evident in the steady increase in casualties, which include the military and other security agencies, tourists, expatriates, and first responders, despite the heavy presence of counterterrorist agencies. Thus, the strategies applied in counterterrorism operations in Nigeria have not yielded visible effects in reducing or eliminating terrorism there. Previous research in this area of study has focused on the effects of terrorism, rather than the effects of counterterrorist strategies, which may be the solution to tackling terrorism.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this qualitative study is to develop new and effective strategies for counterterrorism engagement in Nigeria. With the increasing rate of terrorism in Nigeria and its imminent spread across the African continent, the development of operative approaches to eliminate terrorism is important. Doing so will sustain a peaceful nation through planning and implementation of effective counterterrorism strategies and introduce positive social change among the nation’s youth while ensuring peace and

stability.

Research Question

Because the focus of this study is the development of effective counterterrorism strategies to affect the nation positively by putting an end to terrorism and ensuring that Nigerian youth are productively engaged in nation-building, several questions aimed at gaining knowledge on how this should be carried out were asked. The central research question is: What strategies are being applied in terrorist neutralization, deradicalization and peace sustenance by counterterrorism agencies in Nigeria, and how effective are they?

Theoretical Framework

Critical theory and resource dependence theory were identified for this study. Nigerians have been enslaved by terrorism and yearn for freedom which may be achieved through the application of critical theory in seeking to liberate them from the confines of terrorism, by stressing the reflective assessment and critique of society and culture through the application of knowledge. For organizations or countries to resist or overcome hardship, there must be a considerable amount of exchange in terms of human and capital resources (Shafritz, Ott, & Jang, 2016). The relevance of critical theory will be found in highlighting the importance of resources and empowerment through education and training.

Resource dependency theory highlights the relationship between organizations and the resources they need to operate, and resources may include training, workforce, infrastructure and funding. If one organization maintains the majority of a resource, then another will become dependent on it to operate, creating a symbiotic relationship. In Nigeria, the security agencies depend on the government to operate and this creates the risk of external control, resulting in uncertainty. External control, such as funding or policies, in Nigeria is enforced by the government and can have a negative effect on tasks of counterterrorist operations (Mc Dowl, 2016).

Nature of the Study

Qualitative research method was used for this ethnographic and observational study where data will not be obtained under controlled circumstances but from archived databases, published sources and direct interviews with voluntary stakeholders.

Definitions

Terrorism: An act of violence resulting or likely to result in major economic loss, with a purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or international organization to do or abstain from doing any act (Bruce, 2018).

Terrorist: A person or group of people involved in the act of terrorism.

Counterterrorism: Measures designed to combat or prevent terrorism.

Counterterrorist agencies: Organizations assigned the responsibility of combating terrorism. They comprise of all the components expected to deliver strategies and wellarticulated execution in engaging terrorists.

Counterterrorism strategies: Tactics used in attempting to bring an end to terrorism. These strategies are usually developed by professionals in various fields, who are connected to the issue and work out modalities for practicable ways to apply such ideas.

Niger Delta Amnesty Program: Set up by the government of Nigeria to manage ex militants from the Niger Delta. Their focus was a disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration program established in August 2015 in an effort to end the violence by providing platforms for self-sustaining vocational training and education.

Combat engagement: A face to face hostile encounter with the use of arms, against warring factions: both factions are not involved in any form of negotiations.

Rather, both sides engage themselves in physical and technological warfare.

Disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration: A collection of post-conflict interventions focused on retrieving arms, neutralizing combatants, reintegrating genuine ex-combatants into civilian life, and preventing a reoccurrence (Pugel, 2009).

Assumptions

The initial assumption for the study relates to the personnel of counterterrorist agencies and all agents involved in carrying out a service to curb the menace of insurgency. The assumption holds that; counterterrorism strategies aimed at developing the youths of communities in the terrorist catchment areas and creating positive social change through education, training, and providing social benefits will be more efficient in combating terrorism in Nigeria. In situations where terrorists are not well-disposed to western strategies as a result of their religion and ideologies, other strategies (culturally induced) that provide the opening toward their acceptance, may be applied.

The second assumption relates to the policymakers in Nigeria who are responsible for ensuring that new strategies are signed into law and are implemented by all players including the heads of organizations responsible for counterterrorist operations. It is assumed that decisive measures will be taken to ensure compliance with the recommended results. The last assumption is that the conduct of investigations in organizations saddled with the responsible for managing terrorists and terrorism in Nigeria may not yield positive results as officials may want to cover errors, omissions, and excesses of their organizations.

Scope and Delimitations

Delimitations arise from scope limitations and decisions made during a research design (Simon & Goes, 2013). This study will not be examined from a non-technical perspective. Rather, the focus of this study is to explore the experiences of counterterrorist operatives as well as the strategies they apply in their attempt to eradicate terrorism in Nigeria and to understand the reasons terrorism appears to be on the rise.

The initial stage in the delimitation process involves the identification of a particular problem notwithstanding the numerous challenges connected to the application of counterterrorist strategies. Transferability is achieved during the research design stage by cautious restriction of the study’s population (Rudestam & Newton, 2014). This study will focus on strategies used by security agencies, applied in fighting terrorism in Nigeria and will highlight the Nigerian military. The interest in exploring the military is based on the position that they are the major fighting force against terrorists in Nigeria, as well as their duty as supervisors for other agencies involved in the same line of responsibility.

Limitations

This research study offered me the opportunity to improve my data collection and data analysis skills, as a greenhorn qualitative researcher. Because the processes of data collection, analysis, and interpretation required proficiency to achieve good study results, I sort guidance from experienced faculty and colleagues. This was intended to address my inexperience with doctoral level research work and any potential weaknesses. A major limitation envisaged during data collection may be getting truthful information from the military sources, as it may seem to tarnish their image as an effective security agency, having failed to meet with expectations to dislodge terrorists over a prolonged period.

Given that the collection of data from the military may be falsified to cover their weaknesses, and because combining multiple data sources, methods, investigators, and theories may enhance the credibility of a study’s results and modify integral weaknesses, the design development required me to depend on the proficiency of the dissertation committee members, during the data collection process. The level of researcher interaction with some participants involved with the study may be another limitation. Because interview participants included former and present terrorists in and out detention, their education level, psychological state, and language barrier posed difficulty in gaining exact details or expressions as originally intended by the participant.

I built rapport and trust with participants to ensure detailed and genuine responses during data collection through adequate researcher engagement, active observation methods, and open auditing processes. I developed a transparent audit stream to show the steps I took in collecting data, ensuring its quality through control measures like committee member and peer review.

Significance of the Study

In looking at the significance of this study, it is important to focus on the positive outcome expected to evolve and provide positive social change by eliminating terrorism (Laureate Education, 2016). I hope that the impact of this study will bring about strategic ways of approaching counterterrorism in Nigeria and address the menace of Boko Haram and other Niger Delta terrorists. This can be achieved through effective counterterrorism training programs in the military and other security institutions, providing new policies that will ensure that the strategies are brought to fruition. This study also provides insight into the necessity of education and youth empowerment as a means of positive engagement to discourage poverty-driven motives for those who become terrorists

(Monga, Lin, Elu, & Price, 2015).

Significance to Practice

A number of researchers have studied the causes and effects of terrorism, but little research has been done on the strategies applied to counterterrorism and its effects on insurgency. Udounwa (2015) maintained that adding new strategies to existing ones used by the military is vital in winning the fight against terrorism. Although his strategies were focused on military operations, other strategies emerged from this study that need to be applied to prevent continuous defeat of the military by terrorists. As terrorists continue to develop new strategies to defeat opposition and achieve their aim, the implementation and continuous development of counterterrorism strategies is essential.

Recent terrorism and counterterrorism research have focused on the motives and causes of terrorism in Nigeria, and have provided the learning opportunities for concerned agencies; this research work will advance the scope of counterterrorism strategy-building and will improve the development of defined roles and responsibilities for engagement by the stakeholders. The results of this study will provide the necessary tools required to enhance cooperation among all stakeholders and a better understanding of their roles and responsibilities in combating insurgency.

Significance to Theory

Notwithstanding the repercussions of terrorism on communities, individuals, the economy, and the image of the country, insurgency in Nigeria is spreading and gaining ground. This study is the first to explore the counterterrorism strategy phenomenon using the critical and resource dependence theories. Critical theory will seek to liberate Nigerians from the confines of terrorism, by stressing the reflective assessment and critique of society and culture through the application of knowledge, in order to overcome hardship, by a considerable amount of exchange of human and capital resources (Shafritz, Ott, & Jang, 2016).

In addition, resource dependency theory highlights the relationship between organizations and the resources they need to operate. Security agencies depend on the government to operate, and the risk of external control is inevitable. External control, such as funding or policies, in Nigeria is enforced by the government and can have a negative effect on counterterrorist operations (Mc Dowl, 2016). This study is significant to the theory as its relevance will be found in highlighting the importance of resources and empowerment through education and training in the fight against terrorism.

Significance to Social Change

Terrorism has a negative effect on those responsible for perpetrating the act and those affected by the act. The most affected by terrorism are the youths who, rather than being in school are either recruited into terrorist sects or kidnapped. Knowledge and education provide a better society so preventing young people from achieving this is a way of taking society backward. In Nigeria thousands of young terrorists and students that are kept away from school as a result of terrorism (Singne, 2018).

Developing strategies that would ensure citizens regain their position to enjoy these basic benefits would help in creating positive social change. Enabling young people to gain some form of economic empowerment and education will ensure that society improves. Awareness on community counterterrorism involvement will decrease the chances of regular devastating attacks on communities, preventing them from enjoying social benefits as a result of fear or physical damage.

The research outcomes reveal the importance of development and the roles education and training play in a society. This will ensure that the rate of government dependency decreases, and citizens become a productive part of creating social change in and around their communities.

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